User resistance to computer-based systems is seen by many information technology professionals as the primary reason why so many information systems have failed [1]. The causes of this resistance are many and varied, and have been extensively investigated by many researchers (see Hirschheim and Newman [2]). Nevertheless, these causes have never been approached from the angle of the impact of computerization on professional knowledge. This book can thus be considered a pioneering attempt to study this issue within the broad context of the relations between natural intelligence and traditional artificial intelligence. Its main theme is the crisis that professional knowledge faces in the era of “Turing’s man” society [3], which is dominated by the view of human beings as information processors and of nature as the information to be processed. Therefore, it is characterized by its growing inclination toward the use of “exact language,” such as symbolic logic, which is assumed to be universal, precise, unambiguous, and able to reproduce all forms of human knowledge with the help of computers. Implied in this orientation is the tyranny of theoretical (or propositional) knowledge together with its associated concepts such as objectivity, formalization, standardization, economy and efficiency of representation, and rationalization in attitude toward human knowledge. The crisis of professional knowledge appears at many levels of abstraction and is reflected in conflicts such as those between calculation and judgment; knowing that and knowing how; intellect and senses; and propositional and experiential knowledge. In fact, these dichotomies are reminiscent of the modern industrial revolution and reflect the polarization in Western intellectual life between the two cultures of physical science and the humanities [4].

In contrast with theoretical knowledge (or abstract intellect), professional knowledge (or practical intellect) emerges from close interactions with reality and is developed through the assimilation of the results of these interactions. This endless loop of interactions and feedback leads to the formation of an “inner picture” of reality that is continuously evolved and refined over time. In fact, this well-founded inner picture is what enables professionals to judge and is revealed in their professional skills, which cannot be captured in formulas and cannot be expressed or represented by whatever formal language is used in the realm of theoretical knowledge. Time is required to digest information, reflect upon it, and let it fall into the proper place in the whole inner picture. This perspective provided by time is what is missed in computerized work with its formal theoretical basis, which allows no time for reflection and assessment or for necessary discussions with other professionals and with clients. It is, then, the well-founded inner picture that gives professionals confidence and certainty in their judgment, not the computer-based supports--no matter how sophisticated they may be. Furthermore, professional knowledge is, by its very nature, context-sensitive, whereas theoretical knowledge is context-free, as is the computerized work based on it.

Adopting the “Turing’s man” view and relying completely on the computer, with its exact language, in performing complicated work assignments that require personal judgment have far-reaching and harmful effects on the inner picture of reality and on the professional knowledge based on it. This deterioration lowers the reliability of professionals’ judgments and dismantles the collective competence that emerges from constantly trading knowledge among professionals, that is, it lowers the level of collective professional knowledge. Therefore, the most important aspect of information and artificial processors is the extent to which they can be accommodated in the inner picture and enhance its development. This is one of the main conclusions that the author has drawn from his in-depth analysis of the findings of two case studies and the historical development of the relation between humans and machines together with its philosophical and social aspects. In fact, the approach used by the author throughout this book shows how the convergence of the two cultures could enrich our understanding of reality. Among the other conclusions, one is worth mentioning in the context of professional knowledge: learning from practice is important in acquiring skills and expertise where taking part in practice allow one to benefit from the experience of others. Thus, the work environment has “to be organized in a way that allows social contacts among participants to be maintained” (p. 81).

I recommend this book highly for system engineers who “are terribly rational, [and] do not take into account the way people behave” (p. 7). Moreover, those who are interested in the issue of the convergence of the two cultures will find it illuminating and inspiring as it deals with the epistemology of professional knowledge, “a young research area whose core may be said to be: the study of the development and maintenance of professional knowledge at the level of [the] individual, the work group and the community” (p. vi).